At the heart of the human experience dwells the common question of who we are. Indeed, the formation of personal identity is complex, involving the pursuit of a clear and unique view of one’s self, separate from others. Historically, identity may have been more or less ascribed at birth. Whether a product of predetermined social class or mechanical solidarity, a lack of social mobility significantly arrested the societal pressure for the presentation of a unique identity. Modernity, however, has transformed the social and historical context of the human experience, revamping the identity process in such a way that requires reevaluation. While influences such as gender, class, religion, age, sexuality, race and ethnicity have remained central to identity, the meanings attributed to such factors are ever-evolving. To illustrate this idea, one might consider what it might have been like to be a young Black man at the onset of the war on drugs, or newlyweds during the Great Depression. In the wake of a period of unprecedented social mobility, extensive cultural exchange, decreased local cultural significance, and the explosion of mass media emerges a new context: materialism.
As members of contemporary society, we are dependent on things. Materialism is different from consumerism, having more to do with one’s attachment to material possessions than the economic gains associated with them. Cultural conceptions of materialism infiltrate our perceptions of such formative identity indicators as those mentioned above. Certainly, most members of society would have no trouble listing consumer goods associated with femininity, or the working class individual. We may also use these conceptions to define ourselves by what we are not. Traditional masculinity, for example, forbids the use of cosmetics. Within the context of materialism, individuals are persuaded that they may only discover their individuality through the acquisition of specific goods. However, such a condition presents a curious duality: individuals may pursue certain material goods in the quest of a novel identity, but the products they chose are highly curated by a combination of societal forces and capital interest. While an increasingly pervasive tradition of American materialism may offer the impression of autonomy and meaning, its effect on contemporary identity perpetuates unrealistic ideas and produces conflicting values. This process results in a reduced sense of well-being, thereby rendering it ineffective as a driver for identity in the long term.
The Material Good Life
The flood of surplus material goods into households of all kinds has become a hallmark of modern American culture. In 2020, American consumers spent an estimated $1,010.5 billion on non-essential goods. Moreover, a whopping 25% of Americans claim that they are unable to control their spending. To be sure, the sheer volume of non-essential spending by many Americans is a product of various factors. Researchers across the country, however, point to mass media as a key driver, and these claims are not without merit. One study found that consumers who spent more time intentionally consuming media demonstrated higher levels of materialism than those who spent less. Individuals may be exposed both passively, perhaps through billboards or in conversation, or actively, through television programs or social media platforms. For many Americans, the media is simply inescapable.
Given its predominance in everyday American life, it is reasonable to consider the effects of mass media on American culture at large. Central to materialism is the media’s portrayal of what is perhaps best described as the “material good life.” Companies often advertise certain material goods as associated with the identity ideals such as the perfect appearance, affluent lifestyle, or social prestige, and goods are presented as symbolic bridges towards such ideals. Though these ideals are largely unrealistic, audiences are made to believe that they are useful, essential, and normal in identity construction.
Interestingly, it may be this inherent unattainability of the “material good life” that keeps people chasing it, a sequence which notably increases company profits. A study conducted by the Association for Consumer Research reveals a slew of relevant findings. Firstly, highly materialistic individuals are more likely than others to compare their individual worth to media images which portray immense wealth. As a result, these individuals experience increased dissatisfaction regarding their possessions, and their overall standard of living. Additionally, media portrayals of idealized images influence individuals’ expectations regarding the standard of living they can realistically obtain. Based on these findings, it can be reasonably proposed that materialist pursuits in identity processes may be a means to no end: an individual may only experience a moment of satisfaction before they are on to their next material pursuit.
Possessions As Our Extended Selves
Identities must be created and maintained. While not sustainable in the long term, the use of material goods may appear quite conducive to these endeavors at first glance. In material cultures, possessions are efficient signals of how we wish to be perceived, particularly when individuals experience threats to their identity. Children may be especially susceptible to this symbolic signaling. Early adolescence is often a period in which identity insecurities are heightened and individuals are more self-critical. Consequently, children may present strong desires for identity-relevant possessions, such as phones, gaming systems, or trendy clothing. Once the child acquires an identity-related possession, work must still be done to maintain that symbolic identity. After all, possessions may only become extensions of the self once the individual can demonstrate mastery and control over the object. Children may spend long stretches of time familiarizing themselves with their possessions, go to great lengths to share their possessions with their peers, and experience distress when certain possessions are taken from them.
Although children may offer an augmented illustration of the role of possessions in identity processes, individuals of all ages and backgrounds take part in the game. Experts have identified three major identity motives which may help explain the near universality of these material pursuits. The motives are the need to belong, the need for power, and the need for self-esteem. When an individual experiences loneliness, for example, they may pursue material goods in an attempt to breed familiarity with others. The individual quickly learns that such an endeavor is effective, given the cultural inclination to view possessions as identity cues. Research on the topic concurs, revealing not only loneliness,but also perceived threats to power and low self-esteem to be positively correlated with materialism. Possessions play an important role in identity conflicts, providing us with symbolic anchors through which identity ideals can be created and maintained. Despite short term success in such pursuits, a slew of empirical research indicates that such a relationship may be bidirectional. Material pursuits may very well elicit the precise negative emotions as they were employed to compensate for. Thus, the cycle continues.
Materialism and Well-Being
Recognition of the correlation between materialism and reduced well-being has become something of an axiom in the research community. Yet, Americans remain religiously committed to acquisition and consumption. In fact, despite its correlation with negative feelings, research suggests that deficits in self-esteem may be a primary motivating factor in an increased acquisition of material goods.
One plausible explanation for this commitment might involve the view of materialism as a legitimate value in one’s belief system, perhaps alongside values such as equality, rationality, or patriotism. Difficulty in deciphering materialism’s place in relation to commonly held values may be related to a lack of specificity in criterion for what can be considered a legitimate value in individuals’ belief systems. For example, an objective measure of legitimacy for values might require that the value account for social order, or provide guidelines for social conduct. Under this model, materialism may be considered legitimate. Alternatively, a more subjective measure of legitimacy for values might require that the value is something that is good and worthwhile. As indicated above, materialism would likely not be considered legitimate as a value under this belief system.
Likewise, in the case that materialism cannot be considered a legitimate value, the effects of a materialist lifestyle on an individual’s overall well-being may be conditional on one’s overall value system. In other words, the extent to which an individual orientation towards materialist lifestyles conflicts with other values in one’s belief system might dictate the level of psychological tension they experience as a result of materialism. For example, many scholars peg the wartime production of World War II as a primary instigator to the shift toward surplus consumption. Young adults saw a momentous rise in their spending power as a product of plentiful jobs, higher wages, and the expansion of American suburbs. With the onset of mass production came a period of unparalleled economic growth. In light of resultant economic prosperity, consumer spending on material goods was no longer seen as indulgent. Rather, surplus spenders were seen as patriotic participants of the post-war effort, a key component to the ideal identity of the 1940s. In the context of the 1940s, therefore, materialism may have been seen as an identity ideal that actually increased overall well-being by eliciting pride in one’s contribution to their recovering country. A follower of Christianity, however, might have a completely different take on the economic gain associated with materialism. According to some interpretations of Christianity, materialism blinds us to the curses of wealth, and the accumulation of wealth is almost always a spiritual liability. Followers of Christianity may be more likely to experience psychological tensions between their commitment to religion and the material society they inhabit—a situation with likely negative effects on their overall well-being.
In Closing
To call individualism a myth in contemporary society may be too liberal a claim to make, but the sentiment is surely an instigator for an interesting conversation. The American tradition of materialism may offer an instantly gratifying sense of autonomy and meaning, but its long-term effects on identity are problematic. An analysis of the relationship between personal identity and materialism encourages individuals to remain cognizant of the role of capital interest, as well as various societal forces. As members of the material world, we ultimately have the final say in molding much of the social reality in which we live. With this in mind, let us shift our attention towards a more holistic approach to identity processes, prioritizing values, experiences, relationships, and personal growth over material possessions.